The objectives of the present study were to observe the temporal

The objectives of the present study were to observe the temporal pattern of avian influenza virus (AIV) introduction into Japan and to determine which migratory birds play an important role in introducing AIV. of Japan and entry through the Korean Peninsula. Species identification was successful in 221 of the 352 positive samples. Two major species sequences were identified: the Mallard/Eastern Spot-billed duck group (115 samples; 52.0%) and the Northern pintail (61 samples; 27.6%). To gain a better understanding of the ecology of AIV in Japan and the introduction pattern of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses, information regarding AIV prevalence by species, the prevalence of hatch-year migratory birds, migration patterns and viral subtypes in fecal samples using egg inoculation and molecular-based methods in combination is required. of a 1/10 dilution of bacteria-free, infective allantoic fluid [18] is deemed a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV). The primary subtypes of HPAIV are H5 and H7 [38]. Although virus pathogenicity is determined by its pathogenicity to chickens, HPAIVs show high pathogenicity for wild birds. For example, a mass mortality event caused by HPAIV subtype H5N1 occurred at Qinghai Lake in Qinghai province, China, in 2005. Over a thousand wild birds, including 1257044-40-8 Bar-headed geese (tube, which was then counted as one fecal sample. Fig. 1. Location of 52 fecal sampling sites. The 52 sites were divided into two groups: sampling group A (27 sites) and sampling group B (25 sites). Dotted lines indicate the border of the nine geographic areas, and the direction of the arrow indicates the four … Table 1. Sampling schedule of nationwide surveillance of avian influenza viruses in migratory birds using fecal samples from 52 sampling sites Total nucleic acid extraction Feces were diluted with an equal amount of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) to prepare a ~50% fecal suspension. Total nucleic acids (including host genomic DNA and viral RNA) were extracted from the fecal suspension, using the Ambion Mag MAX-96 AI/ND Viral RNA Isolation Kit (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA, U.S.A.) or the EZ1 Virus Mini Kit v2.0 (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). For the Mag MAX-96 AI/ND Viral RNA Isolation Kit, following overnight stationary incubation to obtain a supernatant, 50 GDF2 of fecal suspension supernatant was used to extract total nucleic acids according to the manufacturers instructions. For the EZ1 Virus Mini Kit v2.0, 250 of the fecal suspension was mixed with 750 of QIAzol lysis reagent (Qiagen). The solution was then mixed with 200 of chloroform by vortexing. Subsequent to centrifugation at 12,000 of the supernatant was used to extract total nucleic acids according to the manufacturers instructions. DNA concentration was measured using a Qubit 3.0 Fluorometer (Life Technologies) and the Qubit dsDNA HS Assay Kit (Life Technologies) to confirm that the two types of total nucleic acid solutions were used as the DNA template for identification of host avian species. Concentrations of 0.5 and 1.1 were obtained using the Mag MAX-96 AI/ND Viral RNA Isolation Kit and EZ1 Virus Mini Kit v2.0 solutions, respectively. AIV gene detection by RT-LAMP Total nucleic acid extracts were subjected to reverse transcription loopCmediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) (Eiken Chemical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) to detect viral RNA. RT-LAMP has been previously applied to detect AIV in the fecal material of migratory birds [26, 39]; the reported detection limit of RT-LAMP for fecal material is 102.5 copies [39]. For samples from 1257044-40-8 2008 and 2009, 5 of extracted total nucleic acids, the Loopamp RNA Amplification Kit (Eiken Chemical Co., Ltd.) and the primer set provided by Eiken Chemical Co., Ltd. were used for the RT-LAMP reaction following the manufacturers instructions. For samples from 2010 to 2015, 5 of extracted total nucleic acid and the Loopamp AIV 1257044-40-8 detection kit (Eiken Chemical Co., Ltd.) were used. A LA-320C Loopamp Real-time turbidimeter (Eiken Chemical Co., Ltd.) was used for the RT-LAMP reaction. The threshold value for viral RNA detection was set at 0.05. Virus isolation from RT-LAMP positive samples was conducted at reference laboratories designated by the Ministry of Environment. Comparison of AIV prevalence by annual migratory season AIV prevalence was defined as the ratio of RT-LAMP-positive samples to the total fecal samples, expressed as a percentage. The prevalence was calculated for each of the seven annual migratory seasons (October 2008CMay 2009, October 2009CMay 2010, October 2010CMay 2011, October 2011CMay 2012, October 2012CMay 2013, October 2013CMay 2014 and October 2014CMay 2015). The annual migratory season (October to May) was divided into three terms: OctoberCNovember, DecemberCFebruary and MarchCMay, in accordance with migration patterns in Japan. OctoberCNovember is the period of autumn migration, DecemberCFebruary is the period of wintering, and MarchCMay is the period of spring migration. The prevalence was calculated for each of the three terms. Autumn migration prevalence was calculated.